Kant Paper 2 Essay Example for Free

Kant Paper 2 EssayIn this assignment you atomic number 18 going to present Kantian arguments against the taking of volunteer(a) drugs that are currently illegal in the U. S. , such as heroin, cocaine, and ecstasy. Do not discuss laws or illegality just stick to the questions as they are scripted and number your answers. Use the following maxim In order to maximize my pleasure, I pass on take recreational drugs whenever I feel alike(p) it. 1. apologize why this maxim is self-defeating, i. e. could not be imagined as a universal law for all rational beings. This should include what a world would look like in which all rational beings followed the maxim and why you could not achieve the purpose or end of the maxim in such a world. Kant thinks that we are not really in throw overboarddom if we are only looking for pleasure or desire and avoiding pains. By meeting our instinctive needs and bring slaves of our desires and impulse. 2. relieve why following this maxim (i. e. taki ng recreational drugs) would interfere with your fulfilling imperfect duties to yourself and to other people.Imperfect duties are laxer duties, which means you will be free to choose what you want to do to promote yourself. We choose to exercise to get health but we can accord our ability to set the exercise schedule. pickings recreational drugs to maximize our pleasure cant provide us any promotion to neither to ourselves nor to the society besides getting high temporary. It is a process do not need you do anything to yourself or to society except taking drugs. And if everyone are addict to bring by drugs their life will get worse because they find that they can get pleasure so easily.And finally people may stop doing anything to get pleasure because they already have. 3. rationalise why following this maxim fails to treat yourself with respect. Kant believe that human beings rational ability make us different and distinguish with animals. 4. Explain why following this maxim would likely lead you to fail to treat other people with respect. As usual, papers are to be typed, standard font, type and run 1,000 wds. (4 pp. ). Do not present an introduction. Answer each question separately and number your answers appropriately.

An Analysis Of Family Structure And Dynamics Social Work Essay

An Analysis Of Family Structure And Dynamics Social Work EssayThe concept of family identity can be defined as a familys intrinsic understanding of reality based on shared beliefs and experiences that determine how individual constituents interact and relate to each other and the world outside the family (Bennett, Wolin, McAvity, 1988). Throughout my puerility my family had two identities a blossom forth identity that was shaped by societal expectations and norms, and a private identity that was governed by the unique needs and issues that plagued our family life. From a public perspective we were a conventional snapper class family complete with a married couple, three tiddlerren, and two dogs. We lived in a modest but comely home in a suburban community, my sisters and I attended private schools, and we were financially secure. However, few people were aware of the contest, chaos, and ab determination that occurred behind closed doors deep d throw our home. Our private i dentity, characterized by dysfunctional behaviors and interactions that occurred between various members of the family, told a very different story.The construction or organization of my family based on normals of interactions, subsystems, and boundaries is important in understanding the dynamics deep down my family of origin (Minuchin, 1974 Nichols, 2011). The genogram, or family diagram, provided in the appendix illustrates a multigenerational view of structure and relationships within my extended family (Bowen, 1978 Nichols, 2011). However, for the purpose of this paper I will focus on the structure of my family of origin. My family consists of my father, Gerald, my acquire, Alma, and three children Michelle, the eldest, Jennifer, the middle child, and myself the youngest child. Our family structure was governed by familial roles, rules, and expectations (Nichols, 2011). My father held the role of financial provider within the family. His responsibility was to ensure that th e family had financial security. My mother maintained the role of caregiver and leader. She was the matriarch of the family and was charged with the task of maintaining each aspect of the home and family. My oldest sister was the scapegoat and guardian within the family. Family issues were often projected onto her forcing her to take responsibility and blame for family dysfunction (Shulman, 2006). She also held the role of protector within the sibling subsystem, and frequently shielded my middle sister and I from danger and harm within and outside the home. My middle sister was the secrecy member and model child of the family. She is passive and rarely verbalized opinions regarding family issues, and always make an attempt to satisfy familial expectations and demands (Shulman, 2006). As the youngest child, I played the role of gatekeeper within the family. My goal as the gatekeeper was to use my wit and humor to help the family return to a state of homeostasis by easing tension a nd restoring calm and peace within the family (Shulman, 2006). My family was also governed by a set of explicit and implicit rules and expectations (Nichols, 2011). Explicit rules and expectations consisted of good behavior, high academic achievement, and the completion of various chores and duties within the household. Implicit rules helped fortify family secrets and included keeping family issues private, and sick family members to discuss or acknowledge the dysfunction within the family. Additionally, my family operated as a closed system with rigid boundaries limiting input from outside sources (Minuchin, 1974 Nichols, 2011). We were not open or welcoming to outside influences and assume rather, we internalized familial issues and problems.My mothers mental illness perplex family dynamics and contributed to the pathology within the home. My mother has Borderline Personality Disorder which made her a polarizing presence within our home due to her frequent fits of rage and unst able mental wellness (Nichols, 2011). Thus, the familys attention and energy was primarily focused on my mother and her needs (Nichols, 2011). My mother would frequently displace her anger and rage onto my sisters and I in the form of physical and emotional abuse. Her behavior affected relationships, boundaries, and fond regard patterns within the family as illustrated in the family genogram. My mother exhibited an anxious-ambivalent chemical bond to my father due to her imminent fear of abandonment (Bowlby, 1988 Nichols, 2011). She desperately want my fathers love and attention, but would expect in ways that created conflict and chaos within the marital subsystem (Bowlby, 1988 Nichols, 2011). As a result, my father developed an anxious-avoidant attachment to my mother, which resulted in him creating a rigid spring within the marital subsystem in order to protect and distance himself from my mothers anger and concomitant feelings of helpless and frustration (Bowlby, 1988 Minu chin, 1974 Nichols, 2011). My parents were involved in a cyclical pursuer-distancer pattern of interaction that resulted in my fathers disengagement within the marital subsystem (Minuchin, 1974 Nichols, 2011).The dynamics, boundaries, and attachments between the parental and child subsystems were equally complicated. The relationship between my mother and my oldest sister was filled with conflict and tension. My mother was exceptionally abusive to my oldest sister which resulted in the establishment of disorganized attachment (Bowlby, 1988 Nichols, 2011). My oldest sister perceived my mother as frightening yet, she desperately desired nurturance from my mother and fluctuated between distancing herself from my mother and desperately seeking console and security (Bowlby, 1988 Nichols, 2011). My oldest sister and my mother were psychologically and emotionally entwined or fused with one other despite years of abuse (Bowen, 1978 Nichols, 2011). My middle sister established an anxious-a voidant attachment with my mother (Bowlby, 1988 Nichols, 2011). As a child, my middle sister rarely sought help, guidance, or comfort from my mother as a result of the abuse she endured and my mothers in major power to adequately address her needs for safety and comfort (Bowlby, 1988 Nichols, 2011). I established an anxious-ambivalent attachment to my mother in which I desperately depended on her for emotional support and encouragement despite her abuse, but rarely received adequate comfort and nurturance (Bowlby, 1988 Nichols, 2011). My sisters and I have an anxious-avoidant attachment with my father as a result of his inability to consistently provide us with comfort and safety in response to my mothers abuse (Bowlby, 1988 Nichols, 2011). The family dynamics, however, strengthened the sibling subsystem. My sisters and I have a secure attachment and are able to rely on each other for support, comfort, and nurturance in the governing body of adversity (Bowlby, 1988 Nichols, 2011).C ulture and ethnicity also played an integral role in my family identity and dynamics. My parents are first generation Mexican-Americans and were raised in families that emphasized conventional Mexican cultural values and beliefs including a strong commitment to family, respect, trust, and religion (Rothman, Gant, Hnat, 1985). However, my parents raised my sisters and I in a bi-cultural environment that incorporated various aspects of American and Mexican culture and traditions. My parents emphasized trust, respect, and commitment within the family, but they also introduced American language, food, celebrations, and values including a focus on individuality, privacy, and achievement (Rothman et al., 1985 Beane, 2011). Additionally, contrary to traditional Mexican culture, there was a stronger focus on immediate rather than extended family (Rothman et al., 1985). Religion was also an important cultural aspect of our lives. My family is Catholic and position a strong emphasis on rel igious beliefs and rituals such as praying before meals and attending church together every Sunday.Family Crisis/TransitionIn June of 1992 my family, as we knew it, changed forever. My father left our home without any prior notice or discussion and filed for divorce from my mother. His abrupt and unanticipated deviation from our home left every family member struggling with feelings of shock, confusion, disdain, anger, and anxiety. The initial phase of the divorce process is identified as the most stressful time for a family due to the changes in family structure as a result of the absence of a parent, and subsequent pressures and demands for family members to take on new roles and responsibilities (Cooper, McLanahan, Meadows, Brooks-Gunn, 2009 Kelly Emery, 2003). Additionally, families often experience significant changes in socioeconomic, social, and health resources as the result of a divorce that often increases the level of stress within a family and complicates the coping an d adaptation process (Cooper et al., 2009, p. 559 Kelly Emery, 2003). According to the ABC-X Model of Family Crisis, a familys ability to adjust and heading with transitions and crises is based on the interaction of the following variables A-the situation or stressor answer, B-available resources, C-the familys knowledge of the event, and X-the degree of stress or crisis experienced by a family (McKenry Price, 1994). Let us now apply the ABC-X Model of Family Crisis to analyze my familys initial response to the stressful transition of my parents divorce.The stressor facing my family was the separation, and subsequent divorce, of my parents which left the family in a state of distress and significantly altered our family identity, structure, dynamics, and functioning. My fathers absence resulted in significant financial hardship for the family, which forced my mother to enter the workforce and take on the new and unfamiliar role of financial provider. The responsibility and dema nds of this new role affected my mothers ability to maintain her caregiver role within the family. As a result, my sisters and I had to take on many of her responsibilities within the home. Initially, my oldest sister took on the role of caregiver in my mothers absence. However, my oldest sister left for college shortly after my fathers departure which resulted in significant changes to the sibling subsystem and further complicated our familys ability to adapt and cope. My middle sister was forced to abandon her usual role as the quiet member, and assume the role of protector and caregiver. This new role placed a great deal of pressure on my middle sister and changed the dynamic within the new sibling dyad by increasing tension. Additionally, I was no longer able to successfully ease family tension and chaos as the gatekeeper, and mistaken the new role of helping my middle sister maintain the household.The divorce also affected family attachment needs, boundaries, and relationships . After the divorce, my father was physically and emotionally cut-off from my mother and the rest of the family (Bowen, 1978 Nichols, 2011). My sisters and I had no contact with my father for a year following the divorce, which created a rigid boundary between him and the child subsystem and contributed to our inability to adjudicate our grief and heal (Minuchin, 1974 Nichols, 2011). Additionally, boundaries between the parental and child subsystems, and within the sibling subsystem, became more diffuse as a result of the new roles and responsibilities of each family member (Minuchin, 1974 Nichols, 2011). The changes in family structure forced my middle sister to take on more of a parental role within the sibling subsystem. Additionally, my mother was uneffective to spend as much time within the home due to the demands of her new role as financial provider, which created a distance and disengagement between the parent and child subsystems (Minuchin, 1974 Nichols, 2011). My mothers relationship with my oldest sister was equally affected as a result of the transition. After she left home, my oldest sister was able to emotionally bankrupt or cut-off my mother and the chaos within the home (Bowen, 1978 Nichols, 2011). However, my oldest sister continued to provide emotional support within the sibling subsystem.My mothers mental illness complicated her ability to cope with the transition and adequately address the attachment needs of my sisters and I (Minuchin, 1974 Nichols, 2011). Despite the complicated and chaotic relationship we each had with my mother we desperately needed and wanted her comfort, guidance, and nurturance in response to the pain, confusion, and anguish we were feeling. However, my mothers own emotional instability rendered her unable to adequately address our needs for attachment. My mother was preoccupied with her own needs for emotional comfort and responded in a cold and rejecting manner to our need for comfort and security. Rather, my mi ddle sister and I were forced to provide comfort and solace to my mother and put our own needs aside. This role reversal further complicated the interactions and boundaries between the parent and child subsystems.Culture also influenced my familys perception of the divorce and ability to cope with the transition. The dissolution of a marriage and family is not well accepted within the Mexican culture due to the strong emphasis on family connection and commitment. In fact, families that experience divorce are often shamed and ostracized by extended family as was the case in our family system. My maternal grandparents convey disdain and disappointment in my mothers inability to salvage her marriage and family, which created more tension within our family. Additionally, divorce was uncommon within our suburban community. We were the first family in our community to experience a divorce and this contributed to my familys feelings of embarrassment and shame. The divorce also altered our familys public identity of the ideal middle class family, and revealed some of the conflict and chaos within our home. Our family identity now reflected marital discord and a broken home. Our religious beliefs also complicated our ability to adapt after the divorce. divide is not supported or condoned within Catholicism which increased our feelings of embarrassment and shame in the Catholic community.My family had limited access to resources following the divorce. As antecedently mentioned, our family operated as a closed system which complicated our ability to attain adequate financial, social, and emotional support and assistance from extraneous systems (Minuchin, 1974 Nichols, 2011). Our socioeconomic status, financial resources, and normal of living were significantly minimized. We transitioned from being a financially secure middle class family to living below the poverty line in a liaison of months. Our access to social support was also limited as a result of the rigid bou ndaries separating my family from external systems of support such as family friends and mental health professionals (Minuchin, 1974 Nichols, 2011). Rather, each member of the family sought individual resources within and outside the family to help alleviate emotional distress and attain support. For example, my sisters and I sought support from external systems including friends and teachers (Nichols, 2011). We also relied on the secure attachment we had with each other for emotional support and guidance (Bowlby, 1988 Nichols, 2011). My mother sought emotional support from extended family, the child subsystem, and her new co-workers.My parents divorce was an unexpected event that significantly increased the level of stress within my family and contributed to changes in family identity, structure, roles, relationships, and resources. My familys resistance to seek and accept external resources and support further complicated our ability as a system to recover from our loss and adapti vely cope with the transition. Cultural influences also contributed to a forbid appraisal of the situation. My familys negative perception of the divorce resulted in feelings of hopelessness and despair rather than an emphasis on problem-solving and growth (McKenry Price, 1994). This negative perception significantly inhibited our ability to adaptively cope with the transition and associated stressors. My family was able to readjust structure and roles, but lacked cohesion and stability. The culmination of the event, the lack of sufficient resources, and the negative perception of the transition resulted in my familys appraisal of the event as a crisis that disrupted equilibrium, increased pressure and stress within the family system, and negatively affected family functioning (McKenry Price, 1994).

Case Study of PTSD in Ghana Armed Forces Personnel

Case airfield of posttraumatic melodic line overthrow in Ghana Armed Forces PersonnelCHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION1.1 Background to the storyAccording to The conference of Nations was the first major organisation established after the First worldly concern War for deviation resolutions. Following the failure of the League of Nations to avert the Second World War, the linked Nations Organisation (UNO) was established in 1945 to replace it. The United Nations (UN) is an international organisation, which among other things, aims to throw international tranquillity and surety and to take collective and baulk measures to ensure global stay( Rikhe, 1983).The need for peaceful co-existence and resolution of conflicts and warfares necessitated the introduction of third party involvement in conflict resolution mechanisms in the 19 century. The third party approach to village of conflicts and wars is practiced primarily by the UN, regional and sub-regional organisations finished Peac ekeeping Operations (PKO). Peacekeeping is defined as the touch of mediation, conciliation, negotiation and the management of conflict in a bid to kick in peace in an atomic number 18a of conflict, violence or hostilities. Peacekeeping involves the deployment of a soggy force (UN, Regional or Sub-regional body) in the field, with military machine, civil police and civilian somebodynel, in order to stabilize or dampen a conflict land site and provide viable opportunities for pacific resolution of conflicts. It entails peace-making and peace-building (Maj Agyemang-Bioh, 2000). In peace-making, an effort to settle the conflict finished and through mediation, negotiation, conciliation and other forms of peaceful settlement is made exploitation diplomatic action. Peace-building on the other hand, is action-like it includes the realization and confirm of all measures and structures which result promote peace and build the needed trust and healthy interactions among former enem ies in order to avoid a relapse into conflict or recurrence of the hostilities. Thus peace-building is a amicable change through socio-economic separatement, rehabilitation and reconstruction it actively seeks to eliminate the likelihood of direct or indirect violence in the conflict area, with the object of preventing further war and then to obviate any woe signal in the community (Ibid).The complex temper of modern conflicts and approaches to dealing with such conflicts gave birth to the term Peace view as Operations (PSO). Peace support Operations are multifunctional trading operations in which impartial military activities are designed to create a secure environment and to facilitate the efforts of the civilian elements of the boot to create a self sustaining peace (Institute of Security Studies, 2000). The concept of PSO refers to the military, diplomatic, economic and humanitarian activities carried out in order to achieve long-term peace settlement and reinstate poli tical and socio-economic stability to a conflict or disaster situation (United Kingdom Joint Warfare Publication, 3-50). The terms Peacekeeping and Peace Support Operations are however, used interchangeably in this paper since both terminologies refer to the equivalent concept. Additionally, the role of the peacekeeper has non changed signifi kindletly with the shift from PKO to PSO.The first UN conflict resolution in Africa was in 1960 following the crisis in the Congo, now Democratic democracy of Congo (DRC). thereafter, the UN focused attention on all troubled spots in order to check crises before they escalated. It also encouraged the formation of regional and sub-regional bodies such as the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union (AU), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and Southern African Development Community (SADC) to complement her efforts. This is in line with Article 53 of the UN train on regional organisations, which states that, the Security Council should encourage associations or agencies that promote peace at regional level (Rikhe, 1983).Since its initial intervention in Congo in 1960, the Ghana Armed Forces has been involved in complex peacekeeping operations from the civil wars in Rwanda, the Liberian and Sierra Leonean conflicts and the Ivorian conflicts, almost all commencing within the 1990s. wholly these conflicts were characterised by extreme cases of human rights violations and other violent crimes which have claimed so many lives and caused so much pain and suffering. In Liberia, Ghana was among the five steer member states of ECOWAS which deployed troops before the UN Security Council belatedly sanctioned it (Erskine (Lt Gen), (2000). Currently, the Ghana Armed Forces is providing contingents for United Nations peace support operations in Cote dIvoire, Liberia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, and Lebanon. A total of 3,250 troops are deployed for peace support operations in the five listed missions. As at 2008, Ghana was the sixth largest contributor of supply personnel to UN Peacekeeping (United Nations Factsheet, 2008). Participation in these operations exposes military personnel to traumatic ensuants.Since the twentieth century, a lot of changes have taken place in both the manner in which peacekeeping operations are executed and the circumstances to which the peacekeeping soldier is exposed to risk. Firstly, not only has peacekeeping operations increased in terms of frequency but they have also undergone a metamorphosis with regard to the manner in which they are conducted. It has been argued that previously peacekeeping soldiers were responsible for monitoring and observing cease-fire agreements mingled with formally belligerent states (Liebenberg et al, 1997). Others contend that the 1990s witnessed conflicts where parties did not comply with peace agreements and/or disobeyed the rules of war (Olonisakin, 1998). He also refers to situations where peac ekeeping soldiers themselves were viciously attacked. The nature of conflict also changed. In the pas,t conflict was characterised by being mainly inter-state, but today intra-state conflict is more(prenominal) prevalent (Nkiwane, 2000 Cilliers, 1999). some other indication of the changing nature of peacekeeping is illustrated in the roles that to age peacekeeping soldiers have to fulfill. The classic roles of the peacekeeping soldier to monitor the implementation of an august agreement between two or more parties in conflict to act unarmed and guard a distinctly marked observation post, or to patrol a demilitarised cease-fire line, have become the exception rather than the rule (Potgieter, 1995). Thus, the evolving nature of peacekeeping duty in itself suggests that today peacekeeping soldiers are faced with new psychological challenges (Litz et al, 1997), and that it is no longer unusual for contemporary peacekeeping missions to include exposure to traditional war-zone experien ces (Orsillo et al, 1998). The above conditions have the effect of increase the underline levels of the peacekeeper.The ability to cope with stress is intrinsically related to psychological and material resources (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984), which are likely to be adversely unnatural by reiterate traumatisation experienced during conflicts. Experience and appraisal of trauma tends to be related to both poverty (Muldoon, 2003) and hearty identity (Haslam et al, 2004). The most common psychological consequence of war and conflict is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The consequenting stress has beenassociated with reduced cognitive, emotional, and behavioralperformance (Mitchell and Dyregov, 1993) and may negatively affect work performance (Paine, 1992).These findings have implications for both the career path ofthe thespian and the efficiency and productivity of organizations. From the kindly identification perspective, the world may protrude to be a frightening place and the trauma victim can emotional state powerless, helpless and incompetent. But in the inter own(prenominal) realm, the family is really unnatural. Post-traumatic stress can cause the sufferer to become emotionally withdrawn and distant from family members. People affected can become overly needy and dependent, or outrageously demanding and impatient. Most of them can revert back to old habits like smoking or drinking, or become a newly hatched adolescent and engage in reckless, sometimes life curseening hobbies.PTSD is an anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to a terrifying event or ordeal in which grave physical harm occurred or was threatened (Muldoon, (2003). traumatic events that may trigger PTSD include violent personal assaults, natural or human-caused disasters, accidents, or military trash. These traumatic experiences could be caused by reasons such as near-death, sober physical injury, serious accident, violence, war, torture, any event that causes extr eme fear, a horrifying event, or when one feels an extreme hotshot of helplessness (Ibid).PTSD can be categorized into quaternion types depending on the length of time it takes for the disorder to appear and the amount of time it is lay. These include firstly, Acute Stress Disorder, symptoms of these occur within four weeks of the traumatic experience and lasts between two days and four weeks secondly, Acute Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, with symptoms lasting for more than four weeks thirdly, Delayed Onset Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, where symptoms appear years after the traumatic experience and finally Chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder where symptoms last for over three months with the symptoms disappearing for a few days and then reappearing.The major symptoms of PTSD include exaggerated startle response, firing of memory (for explicatefulness), sleep disorders (nightmares and waking up suddenly during the night), flashbacks or images of the traumatic incident that keeps coming back to haunt you, hyper vigilance (very similar to, but not paranoia), hypersensitivity, extreme irritability, anger over petty issues with violent outbursts, possessiveness, extreme nervousness and anxiety, muscle-builder aches and pains for no apparent reason, unexplained fear, low self-conceit and lack of confidence (Mitchell and Dyregov, 1993).PTSD is categorized as Intrusion when the symptoms appear suddenly and go along when memories of a past traumatic incident keep coming back as flashbacks. These flashbacks could be induced by a variety of triggers such as smell, sight, or sound. Once the flashback is triggered, it is almost impossible to stop because the incident seems real with all the emotions involved. Nightmares are a good example of this. PTSD is categorized as Avoidance when a PTSD sufferer consciously or unconsciously tries to prevent remembering anything related to the traumatic experience. This may involve avoiding those close to you, or those you work with, causing misery to yourself and those close to you. PTSD is categorized as Hyper arousal when the symptoms are as a result of stimulated nerves and hormones. whizz could experience severe insomnia, and not remember the entire traumatic experience. During this phase one ordain have very poor concentration and will get irritated easily (Thompson and Gignac, 2000a). PTSD can be treated. However, if left untreated, PTSD could remain lifelong, damaging ones relations with others and causing one several ailments, both physically and mentally (Solomon et al, 1996).1.2 Statement of the ProblemPost Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is common among state who have served in the military or any of the security or law enforcement agencies. The involvement and exposure of military personnel to combat and combat related situations expose them to risks which tend to affect them physically, mentally and emotionally. Some military occupations are more likely to witness traumatic events t han others and thus be at greater risk. These occupations include frontline combat unit, combat engineers and medical personnel. It is often these same professionals or trades that are tasked repeatedly for peace support operations (Gignac, 2000).The fundamental components of combat power of the Armed Forces include the equipment and the personnel who carry out the combat roles. Therefore, it is important that all armed forces maintain a high state of personnel readiness (United Kingdom Doctrine for Joint and Multinational Operations-JWP 0-10). However, participation in combat and combat related activities exposes the military to stressful conditions.Over the years, the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) have been exposed to battlefield hazards through their participation in peace support operations including the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) operations in Liberia, The United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL), the United Nations Interim Force in L ebanon (UNIFIL), the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC), the United Nations Mission in La Cote IVoire (UNOCI), and until recently, the United Nations Mission in Chad (MINURCAT). Exposure to such hazards of war in most cases result in mental and emotional tensions, injuries and death. These situations usually result in what is referred to as stress on the part of the service personnel. It is consequently necessary that serious attention is paid to the problem of stress among participants of peace support operations. This research will therefore investigate and examine tender identification and post-traumatic stress symptoms among participants of peace support operation, with the GAF as a case study.1.3 Justification of the StudyThe military plays an important role in a nations development. They provide a congenial atmosphere for the overall development of a nation. phalanx personnel as a core element o f the security services therefore need sound mind and body to be able to perform their duties effectively and efficiently. It is therefore important that attention is paid to the psychological and emotional needs of the military. Effective handling of post-traumatic stress related problems among personnel of the GAF will enhance their efficiency and productivity both at home and during peace support operations outside the country.The study will help come out with relevant information and recommendations that will help in assisting personnel who are affected by post-traumatic stress in the course of discharging their duties. It will also help reduce the incidence of PTSD among peacekeepers. This will help boost the morale of the personnel of the GAF both at home and on international peace support operations.1.4 Research QuestionsThe study will movement to find answers to the following questionsWhat are the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorders among personnel of the GAF?What a re the effects of peace support operations on post-traumatic stress disorder and social identification?Which are the populations that are affected by post-traumatic stress disorders in the GAF?Is there a relationship between post-traumatic stress and the strength of social identification?1.5.MethodologyThis research which is a case study of Social Identification and Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms among personnel of the Ghana Armed Forces is a qualitative research project hence the researcher largely employs the use of qualitative research design to include both radical and secondary data. Qualitative research is exploratory in nature and encompasses a range of philosophies, research designs and specific techniques including in-depth qualitative interviews participant and non-participant observation focus assemblys document analyses and a number of other methods of data collection (Pope and Mays, 2006). The primary data was collected from live interviews, focus group discussions an d questionnaire administration. A total sample size of two hundred (200) was used for the study. This comprised of interviews with thirty individuals, thirty persons in focus groups of six and one hundred and forty questionnaire which were administered to randomly selected personnel of the Ghana Armed Forces. The secondary data were gathered from books, journals, articles, dissertations, and published and unpublished thesis.1.6 Objectives of the StudyThe study has four-fold objectives. These are toIdentify and examine the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorders among personnel of the GAFExamine and analyze the effects of peace support operations on post-traumatic stress disorder and social identificationExamine and analyze the prevalent group of post-traumatic stress disorders in the Ghana Armed Forces andExamine and analyze the relationship between post-traumatic stress and the strength of social identification.1.6 HypothesisThe research hypotheses used in this study is tailore d to suit a qualitative methodology that is interpretative rather than statistical.1.6.1 substitute(a) HypothesesThere are symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorders among personnel of the GAF.Peace support operations have effect on post-traumatic stress and social identification.Post-traumatic stress disorders affect people of a particular group in the GAF.There is a relationship between post-traumatic stress and the strength of social identification.1.6.2 Null HypothesesThere are no symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorders among personnel of the GAF.Peace support operations do not have effect on post-traumatic stress and social identification.Post-traumatic stress disorders affect every group in the GAF.There is no relationship between post-traumatic stress and the strength of social identification.1.5 LimitationsThe research was limited in terms of data collection. Military personnel are generally sceptical about accepting their stress situations, largely due to the existing stigmatization associated with combat stress and PTSD.Nevertheless, the researchers spatial relation as a member of the GAF provided an insight into some of the issues relating to social identification and PTSD. The researcher further interacted with colleagues and other military personnel involved in post peace support operations to earn further insights into issues raised in the research.1.6 Organization of StudyThe study is organized into five chapters. An introduction of the entire study is captured in Chapter one. Chapter two presents a review of the relevant literature. Chapter three outlines the methods of data collection while an analysis and interpretation of data and results is covered in chapter four. The fifth chapter is devoted to the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations.CHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.1IntroductionThis chapter provides the theoretical framework for the research. It considers the views of some writers on Peace Support Operations and ho w they impact on social identity, stress and related concepts. The study of these concepts will help in understanding the social identification and post-traumatic stress symptoms in post peace support operations among Ghanian peacekeepers.2.2 Social Identification and related Theories2.2.1 Social IdentificationSocial identification is the process by which an aspect of self- image is developed ground on in-group mouthful or ethnocentrism and a perception of belonging to a social or cultural group. (APA, Thesaurus of Psychological Index Terms, 8th ed).2.2.2 Theories of Social Identification some(prenominal) theories have been formulated to explain how threats or stress affect social identification. Three of the well known theories are explained below2.2.2.1 The Integrated Threat schemeThe theory of Integrated Threat was first identified by Walter and Cookie Stepan, when they attempted to explain how a groups prejudiceswere created by threats from other groups. These threats are sa id tobe present anytimeone groups actions, beliefs, or characteristics challenge the goal attainment or well being of another group (Riek, Mania, Gaertner, 2006).An individual group may feel threatened by another which is utilizing resources it needs to achieve its goals or to sustain its status as a group. These resources may be tangible, such as money or materials, or intangible, such as status, power or knowledge (Ibid). When resources are scarce, the group whichis threatened by the lack of resources finds itself motivated to compete for the resources in order to maintain its identity as a group or to achieve its goals (Ibid). This competitionpromotes negative attitudes towards those in the group utilizing the resources (Aberson Gaffney, 2008).The two groups in competition over resources can be described as the in-group and the out-group. The in-group can be described as the group of people with whom an individual categorizes himself/herself with. Members of an in-group feel a sense of lading to the group and gain greater esteem from their sense of belonging to the group (Redmond, 2010). The out-group can be described as any group outside of an individuals in-group and a group that can be a potential rival/competitor for resources (Ibid). The in-group is the group which feels threatened, and the out-group is the group which is posing a threat to the in-group (Kendall, 1998).Intergroup threats contribute to conflict because they influence behaviors, perceptions, and emotions. An appraisal of threat can evoke strong negative emotions, including that of fear, rage, anger, resentment, frustration, contempt and insecurity. In addition, perceptions of threat reduce emotional empathy for members of the out-group. All of these negative emotions combined with the lack of empathy felt for the other group, can literally bring people to a breaking point.2.2.2.2 Social Identity surmiseSocial Identity Theory focuses on the relationship between self-concept and group behavior (Hogg and Terry, 2001). The social identity theory was proposed by Henri Tajfel as a result of work he was doing in the 1970s concerning categorization and social perception, intergroup behavior, and the pursuit of social psychological understanding of the causes of prejudice and intergroup conflict (Abrams and Hogg, 1999). He believed that there was discontinuity between how people behaved when they related to others on an intergroup basis as opposed to an interpersonal or individual basis and sought to explain the behavior of people in group situations (Abrams and Terry, 2001). Tajfel identified three components of social identity, self-conceptualization, group self-esteem, and commitment to the group, which when met, lead a person to feel connected to their in-group. As a result, all other groups become out-groups and are rivals for status and resources as well as a source for comparison. This can lead to discrimination in spare of the in-group or against other out-gro ups as well as stereotyping and prejudice when a perceived threat occurs (Redmond, 2009).According to the Social Identity Theory, social identity and intergroup behavior is guided by the pursuit of evaluative verifying social identity through positive intergroup distinctiveness, which in turn is motivated by the need for positive self-esteem (Hogg Terry, 2001). In other words, a persons behavior will be affected by their positive association with their in-group, when their self-esteem and/or status are elevated by that association. Central to this theory are three components identified by Tajfel self-categorization, group self-esteem, and group commitment.2.2.2.2.1 Self-CategorizationSelf-categorization refers to a persons belief that he/she belongs to a group. A person must categorize or identify him or herself as a member of a group in order to have their self-esteem elevated through association with the group. According to this theory, categorization sharpens intergroup boundar ies by producing group-distinctive stereotypical and normative perceptions and actions and assigns people, including self, to the contextually relevant category (Ibid). In addition, self-categorization can reduce uncertainty about themselves and others and about how they and others may or ought to behave in specific social contexts (Ibid). The core of an identity is the categorization of the self as the occupant of a role (Stets Burke, 2000). By assigning roles to individuals that are self-categorized as being part of a group, individuals can derive meanings and expectations associated with their roles, and as a result, are able to create values based standards that motivate and guide behavior.2.2.2.2.2 Group Self-EsteemGroup self-esteem refers to the positive self-esteem or self-identity gained through membership in a group. In order to categorize ones self as a member of a group, membership in the group must hold some value for the person such as improvement in their status or p ositive personal identity through the association with the group. The theory suggests that people have a need to see themselves in a positive light in relation to relevant others (Hogg and Terry, 2001) and that this can be achieved in a group context through making comparisons between in-group and relevant out-groups in ways that favour the in-group (Ibid).2.2.2.2.3 Group CommitmentGroup commitment refers to the strength of the commitment a person feels to their in-group. This is important because if an individual believes they can move into a higher status group, this person will be unlikely to show much solidarity or engage in much direct intergroup competition and will instead attempt to disidentify and gain psychological entry to the dominant group (Ibid).When a person identifies him or herself with a group, gains a positive self-esteem through the group, and feels committed to the group, the person will be motivated to maintain the group and their memberships in the group (Redm ond, 2009). There can also be adverse consequences, however, to an individual over-identifying with a group. When a person becomes too attached to a group, it can lead to stereotyping and the degradation of out-groups as well as overdependence, antisocial behavior, decreased creativity, and a decreased sense of self for the individual (Hogg Terry, 2001). As a result of being too attached, the lines that once separated the individual identity from that of the group may become blurred. If this loss of individuality takes place, it may result in a decreased ability to create an independent self concept apart from the group.2.2.2.3 Social ascendency TheoryThe Social Dominance Theory originated in an attempt to combine the more classical theories of social behaviour such as Marxism, and more contemporary theories such as Social Identity Theory into a unified behavioral model to explain bias in group behavior (Sidanius Pratto, 1999).The Social Dominance Theory is based on the idea that in virtually all societies, group-based hierarchies are formed in which both dominant and subordinate groups co-exist. As is of course the case, the dominant group(s), referred to as having positive social value in the group structure has access to rights and privileges that are denied to subordinate group(s) because their (negative) social value and ability to bring to bear power and resources are limited (Ibid).A principledistinction between Social Dominance Theory and similargroup-based social theories, such as Social Identity Theory, is that group members are not only motivated to protect the group to preserve their social status, but feel compelled to justify their group behavior (dominant or subordinate) through ahierarchical system represented through the following omponentsLegitimizing Myths, Trimorphic Structure, and Social Dominance Orientation (Redmond, 2009).2.2.2.3.1 Legitimizing MythsDambrun, et al.(2009)upholds Sidanius and Prattos contention that both dominant and subordinate groups strive to sustain group-based hierarchies by the development of opponent ideologies that promote, or attenuate group inequality and domination otherwise referred to as legitimizing myths. In other words, social groups play off each other through social policies to maintain the group hierarchy but are motivated to do so for different reasons. The differences between these reasons are referred to as behavioral instability (Redmond, 2009).Asymmetry occurs when the dominant group wishes to maintain their positive social status, yet the subordinate group wishes to climb the proverbial ladder and participate in the unnumerable advantages of the dominant social group. As selfish as we are, social groups are not fully inclusive. These groups seek to maintain their social status by justifyingbehaviors through mitigating perceived gaps in social status. This is accomplished through legitimizing myths in the form of perceived negative stereotypes, values and beliefs again st the opposing groups.Legitimizing myths consist of attitudes, values, beliefs stereotypes, and ideologies that provide moral and mind justification for the social practices that distribute social value within the social system (Sidanius and Pratto, 1999). Legitimizing myths can be broken down into two distinct groups hierarchy-enhancing legitimizing myths (HELM) and hierarchy-attenuating legitimizing myths (HALM). HELMs not only organize individual, group, and institutional behavior in ways that sustain dominance, they often lead subordinates to collaborate with dominants in the maintenance of oppression (Pratto et al, 2006).2.1.2.3.2. Trimorphic Structure of Group-Based HierarchiesOur sensitiveness to join groups is an essential element of Social Dominance Theory that assumes a trimorphic structure of group-based social hierarchy in which members are stratified into social groups based on characteristics related to the following three structures (Sidanius and Prato, 1999)Age A biologically-based system where adults are classified as socially higher (valued) than younger people.Gender Another biologically-based system in which males are classified as socially higher than women.Arbitrary set -Group-based hierarchies determineits orderbased on a virtually limitless set of factors including personal preferences, religion, beliefs, class, ethnicityor values.The age and gender systems are fixed in terms of their applicability to social groups. In other words, these stratification systems extend to all social systems as members invariably fall into a range of either group.The inclusion (or exclusion) of membership within the arbitrary set system however, is dependent upon the factor(s) applied to the group. For example, a social group based on ethnicity or religion will include a very specific subset of participants to the exclusion of all others.For these reasons, the arbitrary set system represents the most dynamic group-based social hierarchy. This system ha s the potential to be the most inclusive (and positive) in terms of being socially constructive, as well as the most exclusive, or socially destructive.2.1.2.3.3.Social Dominance OrientationTo better predict social group bias, Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) was developed to measure the finis to which individuals manifest discriminatory behaviors(Sidanius and Prato, 1999). SDO is defined as the degree to which individuals desire and support group-based hierarchy and the domination of inferior groups by superior groups (Ibid).2.2. Concepts of Stress and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder2.2.1. Combat/Traumatic StressStress is a word that is often used to cover a whole range of feelings and emotions. There are many varying definitions of stress. Some researchers distinguish between eustress (when something changes for the better) an

The Concept Of Spirituality Sociology Essay

The Concept Of otherworldliness Sociology EssayThat Religion has both a positive and negative effect on human behaviour is widely accepted (Batson, Scoenrade and Ventis, 1993 Paloutzian and Park, 2005 Zinnbauer and Pargament, 2005). Psychology has an important role in on a lower floorstanding the basis of belief, companionship and behaviour, (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003), which suggests that how it is taught and how power is apportioned should be c atomic number 18fully considered in particular if, as suggested, devotions are authoritative spiritual traditions. Despite clear importance and contradictory effect on human behaviour religion remained a fringe research area for the number one seventy five years of the 21st Century and upgrademore it was extinct in the research activity of Psychology betwixt 1930 and 1960 (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003 Gorsuch, 1988). A suggestion for the non evolution of the record of religion suggests that the emerging pertly science wanted to quad itself from its philosophical fathers and their occasional radical theories about religion, in entirely its forms were not necessarily compatible with the modernist scientific paradigm that was emerging (Gorsuch, 1988 Hood, Hill and Spika, 2009). In summing up Emmons and Paloutzian, (2003) commented on their tendency to avoid taboo subjects.Despite the fact that religion was ignored by psychologists, societys changing attitude towards religion has been cited as having occurred concurrently with twain historical events. Durkheim date form of addressed that both the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution which also marked the muster up of democracy and own(prenominal) freedom, instigated the breaking down of the brotherly classes which governed religion thus leading to the tender society questioning of blind faith, (cited in Pals, 1996). The hippie era which come forwardd in the 1960s opened up new possibilities to a rebellious youth that initiated a societal t urn to new date thoughts. Roberts (2004) suggested this to be a secularisation in the evolution of religion, since the pre-industrial age had been a period when religion was regulated by governing bodies, whilst the industrial era featured a religious comparison with other organisation and finally the slur industrial era marked identification as spiritual rather than religious. The post industrial age also marked the establishment of religion as a in-personise system of meaning which suggests this was the beginning of a variety of religiousness save, the scientific establishment had not transformed its views of religion and spiritualty. McPhillips (2002) considers this return to spiritualty in the form of new age and religion as a reaction by society to secularisation and a societal search for re-enchantment which has been unconnected through individualism. only church property is still world viewed from the horse opera perspective and does not explain the transformatio n of what is practiced. merelymore it also assumes that easterly religions which are newly practiced in the west retain the same original meaning and are expressed and practiced the same as by the original practitioners. When the hire of religion did re-merge in the 1960s with a new group of researchers their prime interest was prejudiced behaviour rather than religious behaviour it marked the rise of the measurement paradigm which became the main method of study of religion.Problems do exist with the study of religions and spirituality. Gorsuch, (1988) suggested research in religion is at high risk of personal distortion. The lack of development demonstrates that the study of Religion has been socially managed, which indicates that politics are a factor, implying that the study remains in the realm of imperialism despite the general cognizance moving on as suggested by Durkheim (date cited in Pals, 1996). The effect of a personal agenda is again indicated through the resistance to the addition of spirituality deep down the title of APA division 36 psychology of religion (div 36). Its rejection is not based on empirical evidence except rather a claim that spirituality is fashionable (APA div 36, 2005) and has not amassed the same large body of evidence that its religious counterpart has done and therefore did not duly desire any credit. that, the western concept of religion marginalises spirituality, which includes much older eastern religions except again without empirical evidence (Dubuisson, 2003). The fashionable term new age, which is often the banner under which spirituality is defined has in response to this emerging negative view, moved away from the hold of new age according to Lewis, (1992) who further suggests that no new label should be embed. A move away from the new age concept however could have both positive and negative effects on the study since it will allow the integration into spirituality of satisfactory forms of belief and bri ng however without the label they are difficult to locate .Interestingly do-gooder psychology Div 32 puts a far greater emphasis on spirituality and bifurcates it from the weird, which it claims is the domain of religion (Elkin, 2001). Another key factor which needs to be considered when studying religion is a participants susceptibility to answer questions according to societal expectations or norms that is not only in intercourse to practices nevertheless also regarding personal go steadys, (Batson, Scoenrade and Ventis, 1993). The study of religion became mainstream within psychology by the 1980s which was marked by a plethora of books beingnessness published however spirituality didnt emerge in mainstream research or in the title of any published books until the year 2005. set aheadmore, Lewis (1992) suggests the overall consciousness of the general public has altered and this change has break loose the attention of psychologists who find it easier to conduct inventori es within defined groups rather than addressing the general alteration of spiritual commonsense ideas. This general change in the consciousness has conduct to a crossover of the notation of what is practiced such as pastime a traditional religion and practicing yoga. Without victorious this change into account inventories are flawed. However what one person defines and argues to be rational could be another persons irrationality, (Gorsuch, 1988) which is particularly important when considering these scales since the subjectivity of rationality is particularly legitimate due to the complex character of religion and spirituality. Furthermore as cited in Gorsuch, (1988) Colins (1986) suggests that a neutral objectivity of religion is difficult particularly since neutrality for some religions is regarded as being anti-religious. A further issue is that experience is also subjective and ill defined, (Hood, Hill and Spika, 2009). For some individuals it is considered to be out there and tangible whilst for others experience includes what actually occurs within the mind, (Reber and Reber, 2001). Gadamer defines being experienced as radically undogmatic The man knows that all foresight is limited and all plans uncertain. In him is realised the unbowed value of experience. Further experience is defined as, openness to new experience and symbolic of a search for new knowledge lack of expectation of having attained ultimate knowledge. (Gadamer, Weinsheimer and Marshall, 1989 p351)In the past twenty five years the study of Religion has flourished (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003) and is often added as a defining variable in much empirical research, (Gorsuch, 1988). This is true particularly in relations to mental and somatogenetic wellbeing as Emmons and Paloutzian, (2003) suggest the applied areas of clinical, counselling and health have taken the lead in the study of links with religion which has instigated a move forward in the misgiving of the importance of religi ous and spiritual behaviour in relation to physical and mental health. However the study of religion in relation to social psychology is relatively new (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003) since little is known about why or how people are religious or spiritual or about the criteria by which their choices are do and as a result the understanding of experience has not improved per se.The experimental approach assumes that social situations are alship canal objective and concepts such as Religion, and religiousness are out-there waiting to be thrifty with religion as the umbrella term. Spirituality, which is considered more as an individual quest, is marginalised and considered to be associated in some unknown way to religion but it is far in any case subjective to be studied scientifically. Critical social psychologists however, suggest social constructs are always subjective even when a person is mindlessly playing according to stereotypical societal norms and heuristics, furthermore i t is their claim that social norms have been purposefully created and are evolving throughout history (Stainton-Rodgers, 2003). Formalised religion requires group viscidity and cannot exist without society (Pals, 1996), and it was Freud (1927) who suggested that the individual is the enemy of society since society flourishes when individuals suppress their personal wishes which further indicates why spirituality is marginalised within traditional religions. The individual interest group of religion is further criticised by the suggestion that the quest for spirituality outside the framework of religion is motivated by narcissism, (Hood, Hill and Spika, 2009) however, the humanist approach considers the indwelling core of religion to be the spiritual experience which is dressed up in the language and symbols of a culture or belief system (Elkins, 2001). experimental researchers further claims that personality, attitudes and identities are stable and discourse is a true reflection of them. Even though a database search reveals more than 1000 papers relating to religion, it is seldom the focal point of the studies and often only one item measurement is employ, (Gorsuch, 1988) which doesnt take religion seriously and rarely features in a review of the writings thereby suggesting even more un-quantifed research is available.Using ,the method of questionnaires the measurement paradigm created 125 inventories, (Hill and Hood, 1999) to define and classify religious aspects and activities with a view to understanding religion and spirituality more fully, however much confusion still remains and the number of different inventories furthers this confusion. Rather than consolidating existing research, researchers have devised new inventories sooner of adapting old ones which suggests that each paper is based on a different explanation of religion, (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003) therefore due to a lack of consensus there is an excessive make out of data available b ut virtually no theories have been formulated. Hill, (2005) suggests that no new scales should be created until greater clarity is understood. This range of scales has increased an understanding of formulaic western religious behaviour, however an understanding of spirituality and experience can only have decreased since it is more subjective in nature and when taking into account it more ancient origins. Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) observe that spirituality encompasses not only religiousness but also many other concepts of spirituality both white-tie and informal. What can be established from this lack of consensus is that an ultimate consensus is necessary or at least as Emmons and Paloutzian, (2003) suggests a minimum consensus however parameters maybe easier to establish. Further criticism that inventories have received is due to their narrow understanding of what religions experience entails, that they do not recognise unconventional practise which have been categorised a s new age despite many such as Buddhism and Hinduism including yoga having much more ancient origins, not taking into account cultural differences or supernatural experiences which questionnaires cannot adequately measure. Belzen and Hood, (2006) have suggested a move away from the measurement paradigm. A new framework has been volunteerd the multilevel interdisciplinary paradigm which incorporates all levels of research from all domains, and promotes the acceptance of all data and for non reductive assumptions to be made, (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003).The theory behind this research stems from critical social psychology which considers concepts such as Religion, Gender and sexual activity as socially situated, which Faucault, (1971) suggested has been constructed by society through the use of regulations and technologies of the self which are used to self regulate. Durkheim (cited in Pals, 1996) in relation to society, called it mechanical Solidarity. This digressive approach w as used by Edley and Whetherell, (1997) who explored the socially situated construction of masculinity. Through analysis a repertoire emerged of the new man however a eccentric point remained of traditional values also in the discourse suggesting them to be the master and slave while constructing their individuality. James (cited in Stainton-Rodgers, 2003) suggested the self to be made up of the I self as knower and the Me self as known however another construct of the self, the inter-subjective self (Stainton-Rodgers, 2003) doesnt divide the self instead as simply as James, but incorporates what Mead (1927) called the reflective self. It considers the self to be subject to inter-subjectivity, made from the following elements reflectivity (reflective on their own behaviours), connectedness (interrelated to others and society), intentionality (purposeful and strategic), being-in-the-world (constantly influenced socially and contextually) or as James suggested a dynamic flow of con sciousness that is constantly being changed moment by moment.This dynamic self was explored in the transcripts of Diana Princess of Wales discourse by Abel and Stokoe, (2001) who found she constructed an inner true self and outer royal self which were reconciled as an ambassador for the people however she constructed two selves in very different ways suggesting that the experimental inventory method of questionnaires cannot fully capture the nature of identity. Not only has the identity of self been deconstructed by critical psychologists but also the concepts used for membership categorisation such as religion, sexuality and gender, masculinity and feminism. Many suggest that the study of Religion and Spirituality is irreconcilable with the scientific method (Bateson, Schonrade and Ventis, 1993) however both incorporate the study of identity which critical psychologists also suggest is incompatible with the experimental method (Stainton-Rodgers, 2003) a first step however is to employ that which has been lacking to date, namely a universal understanding of both religion and spirituality by either definition or set parameters.A straggling discussion of the definition and distinctions between religion and spirituality originated when, Starbuck (1899), defined spirituality as an instinct, whereas James (1902) considered religion in relation to pragmatics and defined religion and spirituality as institutional and personal religion respectively. Maslow (1976) the Humanist introduced similar descriptions, those being organised religion and personal spirituality however his approach suggested an innate human need rather than free will of behaviour. Maslow further considered spirituality to be naturalistic rather than super natural which is in contrast to the psychology of religion that regards spirituality as being focused on the un-measurable supernatural. A major feature of traditional religion is the following of teachings and a incorrupt code however differ ent forms of spirituality also have an intrinsic learning system (Lewis, 1992). Hall, (1904) considered religion more as a moral code and the facilitation of education of the young. Cognitive developmental research has suggested that children in keeping with Piagets stage theory have a concrete understanding of religion but not until the teenage years and more importantly, if ever, do humans develop an abstract symbolic understanding of religion, (Gorsuch, 1988) though there is very little research. In 1912 Leuba found 48 different definitions of religion (cited in Batson, Schoenrade and Ventis, 1993) with the diversity of religion and spirituality therefore it is not surprising that no single definition is in existence. Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) reviewed several definitions and call the situation a flux over meaning.In debate over the construction of spirituality Pargaments defines spirituality as Sacred (1999a 1999b) with Emmons and Crumpler, (1999) differentiating sacralisa tion as both an internal and external sanctification the internal being the transformation of persons to become holy and pure and external sanctification as that of places, people and objects with the emphasis still being placed on god and religion. McPhillips, (2002) considers the sacred to have been created due to a need for enchantment however it is still based on western practices. Furthermore, this taps into the gender debate since religion predominates with sacred masculinity of God, Jesus, Mohamed, Buddha, for example whereas spirituality incorporates that of a feminine energy, sacred goddess, or a divine mother. leeward (2000) who considered spirituality in relation to feminism cited Ferguson, (1995) who claimed women are alienated by a masculine dominated religion which however suggests that all religions and spirituality are engendered. However as Lee (2000) suggests when spirituality is considered within the feminine domain there is a susceptibility of merely reiterating the gender division rather than creating a rebalance. Spirituality however generally refers to both genders, Hinduism has both gods and goddesses and Buddhism refers to the un-gendered Buddha within. Stifoss-Hanssen, (1999) considered focusing spirituality on sacred to be more subjective than necessary and related more to an individuals personal definition of their religion rather than a general explanation implying that what is deemed sacred to one person, is not necessarily sacred to another. Stifoss-Hansen, (1999) claimed that Pargament, (1999) uses general terms intentionally to turn over forms of spirituality which entirely exclude religion. Having disregarded the concept of sacred Stifoss-Hanssen (1999) argued spirituality as existential and related to meaning, placing spirituality as the more global term. Zinnbauer in, Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) hold with the global difference however defined and differentiated the search for the sacred by religion being within a tradi tional framework. However Pargament in the same paper remained with religion but considers spirituality as the search for the sacred and religion as a search for the significance in ways to sacred.Batson, Schoenrade and Ventis, (1993) proposed different definitions for function and substance. This split in the definition of function and substance implies that by defining and distinguishing between religion and spirituality an ideological dilemma exists between its use and content. Further examples of possible ideological dilemmas appear in Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) which they refer to as the rise of opposite and polarisation. The rise of spirituality (Hill et al, 2000 Zinnbauer and Pargament, 2005) religion is being set forth as substantive, static, institutional, objective, belief-based and bad and opposed to spirituality which is conceived as functional, dynamic, personal, subjective, experience-based and good. However this viewpoint maintains the imperialist, westernised c oncept of religion and spirituality as spirituality didnt necessarily rise, rather the scientific study of religion finally recognised spiritualities prior construction. Dubussion (2003) claims religion is a western invented concept, which influences the way religion is defined by constructing western religions as true and thus marginalising eastern religions which do not conform to the western ideal. Wulff (1997) suggested that what had occurred was a change of reference to religion from a verb to a noun. Religion has been defined by Reber and Reber, (2001) an institutionalised system of belief or traditional pattern of ritual and ceremony and is considered to have been devised due to the innate need to understand the human condition. This definition get aways on the suggestion that religion is a belief based doctrine and implies any doctrine not only traditional western religious but any form of doctrine should be considered a religion, so a distinction between western Religion a nd Eastern spirituality is not suitable since many forms of spirituality also contain doctrines. Reber and Rebers, (2001) definition further conceives religion as a function of a meaning system which places religion as a function of essentialism (Paloutzian and Park, 2005). Stifoss-Hanssen, (1999), however considers spirituality a function of a meaning system. Robert (2004) claimed the emerging American return to religion and the emergence of the new age is based on a new search for personal meaning rather than a general, implied and instructed societal meaning system which suggests that not all cultures are at the same evolutionary point with regard to understanding religion and spirituality. James (1902) highlighted the importance of context to meaning and suggested that experience rather than institution should be studied since institutions are a product of experience whereby suggesting a spiritual focus on substance rather than function. Furthermore Zinnbauer and Pargament, (200 5) revised the possible distinction to religion as being reduced to its static function and spirituality as dynamic. However a search for meaning (function) does not indicate that the use of religion gives meaning (substance) or what is eventually accomplished by experience is meaning. It may simply be that meaning is the idea that draws some participants in (function) and their experience (Substance) is something else or vice versa depending on the individual. Furthermore there is no evidence that the sole function of religion or spirituality is for the purpose of meaning or that as the Humanists assume, there is a need for meaning.Following on from the meaning system, Lewis (1992) suggests spirituality as a social and individual transformation however the transformation of both society and the individual may not solely have a spiritual basis since one may be affected by the other. Furthermore no one single model of transcendent reality can be chosen to define spirituality, (Reich, 2000) although transcendent reality can be defined as one concept which explains the experience of spirituality. In the UK the research on eastern spirituality is conducted by (BPS subsection) transpersonal psychology which draws on the humanistic aspects of the debate. both(prenominal) transformation and transcendence focuses on the individual, which is another factor that often emerges in debate which could be considered as just one aspect of spirituality. Transpersonal psychology does however also incorporate the self help and mind, body and spirit concept which incorporates a how to concept which can still be considered a doctrine that would draw aspects of it closer to religion as opposed to spirituality. Furthermore religious experience could be suggested to also incorporate personal transformation (Lewis, 1992) this adds to the argument that both religion and spirituality have a learning focus.Other concepts emerge however within the debate connectedness (Emmons et al, 2003 Hill and Pargament, 2005 Paloutzian and Park, 2005 Pargament, 1999a Reich, 2000 Stifoss-Hanssen,1999) is a major concept used to construct spirituality (Keisling et al, 2006 Knight, 2002 Lee, 2000 2007 Lee and Marshall, 2002 Person, 2002) although what is connected is not so clear cut. Reich, (2000) suggested the connection to be to others, nature and a higher being whereas Lee (2000) found that participants in feminist spirituality constructed connectedness as to the feminine goddess however by connecting to the feminine it doesnt discriminate the possibility of other connectedness or claim that this form of spirituality was for everybody. There is also some use of oneness which is constructed as collective of many different forms. Lee and Marshall (2002) further propose links between spiritual oneness and popular cultures such as the rave scene of the 80s and DIY culture whereby lack of need for personal gain is constructed as spiritual enough however many other popular activitie s can be linked such as the sporting zone (Douillard, 2001) gifts such as music, writing and art which are often considered to occur with a connection to something else are often called a muse.The concept of religious instinct, that Paloutzian and Park, (2005) constructed as a compulsion, Lee and Marshall, (2002) suggest is the spiritual construction of instinct as a different kind of knowing which uses the vehicular body not just the mind and further as a way of connecting the body and mind and an initiation of transcendence and accessing embodied knowledge and connection to a universal energy (Lee and Marshall, 2002). Hinduism is a particularly good example of this construction together with its incorporation of yoga, as well as meditation within spirituality. Elkin, (2001) also claimed one of the characteristics of spirituality is a rich energy, Reich, (2000) called it a higher being and points out that in religion the higher being is god. Dubussion (2003) suggested everything r eligious to be defined as cosmographic formations which suggests connections through cosmic alignment.traditional and non-traditional Religions are much better concepts in order to distinguish traditional western religion from spiritual religion such as, new age and eastern religions and spirituality could be defined as experience whether religious, non religious or spiritual. Emerging factors of religion and spirituality rather than a definition are as follows finding or receiving meaning, religious institution and spiritual self, belief system, doctrine, teaching system and moral code, experience is more closely aligned with being spiritual, and behaviours being distinguished as religious or spiritual. Emerging interpretative repertoires specific to spirituality are as follows transcendence, transformation, connectedness, instinct, embodied knowledge, higher energy or being rather than specifically a god.There is a dearth of research into spirituality, which is holding back its ac ceptance as being equal to Religion in research. The discursive debate of interpretative repertoires does not however explain their usage and construction. Engler, (2005) claimed constructionist commentary in the form of discursive discussion of spirituality is weak but plentiful but adds little to the understanding and constructionist research in the form of discursive analysis is hard but in short supply. What is required is strong constructionist work, which considers how spirituality is constructed, however to ignore Religion when considering spirituality is not beneficial. A discursive analysis of the experiences of spirituality is required considering how people construct their spiritual identity and the identity of spirituality.This study has considered the constructive qualities of religion and spirituality, which have emerged from the literature and has found key themes of gender, power and being or doing. Religion is strongly influenced by following a doctrine and by doin g religion putting faith in a powerful higher being whereas spirituality is described more by being spiritual and connected and the power coming from within however contradictions in research into mind body and spirit literature also suggests a doing rather than being activity which perhaps is what is confusing the meaning of what spirituality entails. This research will explore what is the nature of spirituality and factors affecting it through discursive analysis of semi-structured interviews with those practicing a particular form of non-institutionalised, non-organised earth based spiritual activities.Research questions/aimsExploring the meaning of spirituality, and the possible relation to gender and power and how participants construct their identity as a spiritual being.Contrasting peoples experiences of spirituality with psychological research into religious experience and body, mind and spirit.Bring a new perspective to the study of spiritual experience and exploring possib le difference between being and doing spirituality.

a world lit only by fire Essay -- essays research papers

AntigoneAntigone was the daughter of Oedipus. She had two brothers, Polyneices and Eteocles, and a sister Ismene. Oedipus had been the King of Thebes. However, he had killed his perplex and married his mother not knowing they were his parents. Oedipus was disgraced and had left-hand(a) the kingdom. His two paroles were too young to shape, so Creon, their uncle served as ruler of Thebes. When Polyneices and Eteocles grew older they allowed their Uncle Creon to continue to rule because of the dishonor, which had been caused by their father. In time, each of the brothers wanted to rule Thebes. Arguments ensued. Polyneices felt he should be the ruler because he was the eldest. Eteocles, also wanted to rule, but was forced to take off Thebes by his brother.Polyneices went to Argo and recruited an army against his brother and Thebes. During the battle Polyneices and Eteocles killed each other committing the sin of fratricide. After the death of their brothers, Antigone and Ismene wer e the only remaining members of the royal Oedipus family. Antigone was to marry Haemon, Creons son thus uniting both royal families. Creon gave Eteocles a heros funeral because he fought for Thebes. Polyneices was not to be given a proper funeral but left out in the open for animals to eat and carry off.Antigone felt she and Ismene had an obligation to bury Polyneices, as there were no longer any males alive in the family. ...

Competitve Analysis of The PC Industry :: essays research papers

.0 IntroductionThe opening of the 21st century arrived with an economic limp. Dragging behind it a spirit squeezed by imploded exuberance, the economy led some to let up up on change and growth. Companies cut new programs, pulled out of or shut down corporate ventures, retrenched and played it safe. Yet, simmering barely beneath the lift we can see powerful drivers of change and growth still at work, building pressure for the next upswing in the megacycles of economy. We never had a New thrift we had an evolving innovation economy. Surviving and prospering, calls for a sound grasp of the drivers of change. The fact that there has never been a golden company that consistently beat the market is collect to differing principles under which capital markets and corporations operates. Markets, built on the assumption of discontinuity enable, manage and control the process of creative destruction by encouraging new entrants that produce pucka results and value by remorselessly replaci ng weak performers that consume wealth. This process is has always been at the heart of capitalism, but the pace of change is accelerating to the extent that we bewilder entered what Peter Drucker calls the Age of Discontinuity. Organizations in todays hypercompetitive world face the paradoxical challenges of dualism, that is, functioning efficiently today while innovating effectively for tomorrow. The purpose of this fortune study is to analyze, understand and prepare strategies to overcome the impacts and implications of introduction of the $15 PC by Rolltronics towards my Computer firm named Company X by using the possibleness of Disruptive Technology and Innovative Management.2.0 Personal Computer Industry OverviewThe market for laptop computers has distinguished itself as one of the fastest growing segments of the computer industry. end-to-end its growth and development, this market, like many others, has changed a great deal as a result of customer demands. In an effort to cater to these demands, companies like dingle and HP look to market trends to aid in the development of new products. In most recent stages, the laptop market has been specifically influenced by a number of trends. Simply, customers are becoming more educated about their purchases. As a result of these consumer educations, buyers want increased customization of PCs. The growing amount of knowledge is creating the world power for buyers to distinguish their own personal need in a computer from a standardized product.The laptop market is growing faster than desktop computers.

John Stienbeck - Of Mice And Men :: essays research papers fc

In my strain I will discuss the theme of loneliness in the novel Of Mice And Men. The essay will consist of info based on the novel towards minor characters such as Curleys Wife, Candy and Crooks. This essay will state information about Curleys Wife, Candy and Crooks loneliness.Curleys Wife was probably one of the loneliest characters of all. She never talked to anyone and she never really liked Curley all too much. why contributet I talk to you? I never get to talk to nobody. I get awful lonely. (p.86) Curleys Wife seems to get a mount of the other guys in trouble. Curley always suspects that shes fooling around with the other men, whatsoever you guys seen my wife? (p.53) Curleys Wife always gives an excuse to confront the guys saying, Any you guys seen Curley? Then she tries to hang around and make conversation. The guys see her as a tramp and a troublemaker but all she wants is soul to talk too.Crooks who is another lonely man was very sad as well. Because he was black he w asnt allowed into the other guys bunkhouse with them because they thought he stunk. Why aint you wanted? Lennie asked. Cause Im black. They play cards in there, but I cant play because Im black. They think I stink. Well I tell you, you all stink to me. (p.68) Crooks is always by himself and working hard even with a disturbed back. Crooks sits in his room all the time by himself.Candy is the other character that is lonely. Not because of the the men not talking to him of anything like that. Because, when Carlson shot his obsolete dog, Candy felt alone. Candy had that pup since he was a kid.